Bharatnatyam

In the 9th and 10th centuries BC, particularly in the time of Chola rule, a number of prominent and still-revered temples were built in South India. As a major part of the culture that flourished around these shrines was the development of dance and music as forms of worship, used to propitiate the gods. Unfortunately, these arts soon became popular entertainment, and the women - once honored and treated with as much respect as the priests themselves, degraded to the position of prostitutes. The dance that they practiced, therefore, was vulgarized and the art itself colored a decidedly negative hue. And there was more strife in store for the dance form. With the conquest of India by the British, the classical arts suffered. 'Reform' was the watchword and the devadasi was again the victim, being labeled the prostitute, the nartaki, the nautch girl, a sub-human who needed to be re-molded to suit society and the Christian missionaries who dictated its norms.

But, with typically human resilience, this situation reversed itself over time. This was primarily done by Chinniah, Ponniah, Vadivelu and Sivanandam, known as the Tanjore Quartet, talented brothers who in the 19th century 'organised' the structure of the dance form (sadir or nautch) itself into what is called Bharata Natyam today - with adavus (or basic steps), combined in choreographed sequences into jatis; these made up part of a more complex string of movements in conjunction with passages of abhinaya to form a cohesive unit of presentation, set to music, rhythmic syllables and lyrics. The brothers also contributed greatly to the repertoire of dance songs - both music and poetry.

Dancers themselves also helped re-establish the purity of Bharata Natyam, the dance of Bharat, or India, as it is sometimes given meaning. Rukmini Devi Arundale, Balasaraswati and Uday Shankar were instrumental in showing people that dance was 'respectable', beautiful, almost divine.

A typical Bharata Natyam performance includes -

Ganapati Vandana - a traditional opening prayer to the Elephant God, remover of obstacles
Alarippu - pooja through nritta to the four directions, the gurus, the elders and the audience
Jatiswaram - sequences of adavus set to musical syllables
Shabdam - generally in praise to a divinity, a short descriptive piece that includes sequences of jatis
Varnam - the longest, most elaborate and most challenging piece of a performance, with jatis alternating with lyrical passages, often describing the longing of a heroine for her lover
Padam - expressive pieces that give the dancer full scope to demonstrate her talent for abhinaya
Tillana - combinations of jatis, with a short prayer at the end, with elaborate tala patterns.

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The story of Siddhendra Yogi is the story of Kuchipudi. Once upon a time in the 13th century, a young man called Siddhappa was on his way across the river for his wedding when his boat capsized. On the verge of drowning, he prayed for his life - which he pledged to God thereafter. As a yogi, he wrote a drama in praise of Lord Krishna, to be performed by male dancers in a style which had its roots in the Bhagavata Mela Natakam. A group performed in this style at the court of a local nawab, and were given the village of Kuchelapuram or Kuchipudi in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh, from which the dance form gets its name, as a gift.

Traditionally, Kuchipudi was danced only by men. Krishna is generally the central figure of any presentation, most often in drama form. Humour also plays a prominent role and there is always a comic character in every performance. It is believed that the style is, in fact, the most closely related to the original Natya Shastra.

The Kuchipudi performance could include  -

Rangapuja - the equivalent of an alarippu, with the directions, the stage, the audience and the teachers and elders propitiated
Kautvamu - jatis and lyrics in praise of a deity
Jatiswaram - pure dance set to musical syllables
Shabdamu - a lyrical piece in praise of god or royalty
Kirtanam - generally composed by saint-poets, it is expressive
Ashtapadi - an expressional piece derived from Jayadeva's Geeta Govinda
Shivalila Natyam - stories about the Lord of Dance in his various forms.
Padam, Javali, Simhanandini, Shloka and Tillana may also feature.

But the highlight of a typical Kuchipudi performance is the Tarangam, where the dancer stands on the edge of a brass plate, balances a pot of water on her head and/or lighted diyas in her hands and moves through complex jatis.

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The form of dance practiced by the Maharis, or temple dancers of Orissa is described in exquisitely carved stone on the walls of temples in the state. It is with the help of these and the text of the Abhinaya Chandrika that Odissi was revived and revitalized in the 1950s in India.

In its use of the basic movements of the head, hands and body, the style is very similar to Bharata Natyam. But Odissi in itself is sinuous and sensuous, a form full of curves and softness rather than firm, decisive configurations. The body does not stand straight and rigid; instead, it bends into the tribhangi, at the neck, the hip and the knees.

The central character of most traditional Odissi repertoires is Lord Krishna, as Jagannatha, the most popular deity of the region. In fact, the puja platform usually includes a figure of the Lord - unformed, crudely painted, with large round eyes - from the temple at Puri. Much of the lyrical, abhinaya portion of a performance tells stories from Jayadeva's Geet Govinda in the form of ashtapadis. These tend to be highly erotic, with graphic descriptions of the love-play between Radha and Krishna, the dancer generally taking on the heroine's role.

The Odissi dancer generally wears the weaves traditional to the region - eleborate ikat - with silver instead of gold and stone-set jewellery. A typical performance includes the Mangalacharan (elaborate prayer routine) and ends with Moksha, or the surrender of the dancer to the divine.

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From the coastal strip that is Kerala come perhaps the most dramatic and spiritual dance forms of India - Kathakali, Mohiniyattam, Krishna Attam, Thiruvathirakkali, Thullal, Theyyam, Chakyar Koothu, Koodiyattam and Padayani. In addition, the martial art of Kalaripayattu - incorporated into much modern dance and almost a dance style in its inherent grace and feeling - also derives from this region.

It is thought that the comparative isolation of Kerala has fostered the deep belief that makes its indigenous performing arts so unique - and so profoundly influenced by religion and local spiritual beliefs. From the 6th century or so, new religions were introduced to the area, with Jainism, Buddhism and Brahminism colouring existing ways of thought and rituals. Temple construction gained in popularity at this time; the courtyards and halls of these holy structures were ideal arenas (or koothambalams) for performances. New languages, too, increased the scope of the art forms, and gave dancers new material to work with and interpret in their own special style.

Kathakali shows its primitive roots perhaps more than any other style. As all the other forms of dance from the state - except perhaps for Mohiniattam - it is extremely dramatic, more aharyabhinaya, with the use of elaborate stage sets, costumes, masks and dialogue. The gestures are exaggerated, almost grotesque, and non-professional dancers often get so carried away by their characterisations that they go into a trance and begin to believe they ARE their characters - the audience, too, may be similarly influenced.

The performance may last all night long, set in a village clearing, lit by flaming torches, the eyes of the onlookers glittering in the firelight, beliefs closer to their primitive roots than in any other setting. The dancers start their make-up hours earlier, the masks not tied on plates of papier mache, but a special gesso painstakingly built up layer by delicate layer. There are stereotypes: the hero has a green face, the villain a black one; the good guys always win, the bad guys die a ghastly, gory, graphic death; the hero gets the heroine and everyone who lives, lives happily ever after.

Traditionally, the Kathakali performance centres around the life and adventures of Lord Rama and is sung-recited-expounded in Sanskrit, now often with Malayalam adding local flavour to poetry derived from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The musicians follow the character they are focussing on around the stage with sometimes hilarious traffic snarls. And Kathakali has also gone global, with performances of The Ilead, Medea and other dramatic works, translated into chaste Sanskrit or Malayalam.

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Kathak

The dance form perhaps most familiar to Hindi film audiences is Kathak, generally presented in an attenuated, often bastardized version. According to old records, Kathak was once very similar to the other styles of dance, amply demonstrating the relationship between all the styles derived from the Natya Shastra. Ostensibly North Indian in provenance, it was heavily influenced by the movements, costumes and manners of Persia and the Muslim invaders of the sub-continent. It gradually became the favorite entertainment of the Moghul courts, and went through the same evolution from being 'respectable' to the practice of courtesans or tawaifs.

Kathak is far more rigid than any other style of classical Indian dance, with a strong emphasis on footwork and rhythm. Dancers wear tight-fitting churidars under angarkhas, achkans or kurtas, with long strings of bells wound firmly around the ankles. It is these that demonstrate the true virtuosity of the artiste - it is said that the maestro, Birju Maharaj is able to control his ghungroos so that just one of the cluster will ring, to the rhythm set by his mind and feet!

The excitement in a typical Kathak performance is the jugalbandi, the interactive, competitive give-and-take dialogue played out between dancer and tabla player. Each leads and then follows, in a game of challenge. Much of the recital is ex tempore because of this, inspiration yielding to schedules, and the best Kathak presentations can continue well into the night, as long as the dancer can stand and interpret taals and recite bols.

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From the northeastern state of Manipur, Manipuri dances are essentially folk forms, which primarily use the arms and upper body to communicate. The dancers, mostly women, wear rigidly framed cylindrical skirts, which are ornately embellished, or else the simple, more modern lungi traditional to that part of India.

In Manipuri, the distinction between the lasya, or feminine, and tandava, or masculine modes of movement is marked. The former is soft, subtle, the feet barely moving, the arms curving into delicate patterns in the air; the latter is vigorous, strong, energetic, with leaps, bounds and circular jumps that make a recital more vibrant and interesting.

According to the legends of the Meitei tribes, people of the state, when the Creator gathered the Earth together into a unit, it was lumpy. The seven Lainoorahs danced on this newly formed sphere, pressing gently with their feet to make it firm and smooth. This is the origin of Meitei Jagoi. To this day, when Manipuri people dance, they do not stamp vigorously but press their feet gently and delicately on the ground. The original myths and stories are still practiced by the cultist Maibis, or Meitei priestesses in the form (Maibi) that is the root of Manipuri.

Manipuri dancers generally tell the stories of Krishnas deeds, or leelas, with a climax that shows the Blue God dancing with his female companions. The music is very Oriental, with wailing, shrill tones and nasal notes coloring the voice of the singer.

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Now performed exclusively by women, Mohiniattam, or the dance of the enchantress Mohini, is a style of dance from Kerala, which is said to predate Kathakali. Traditionally performed in the temple courtyard by the devadasis, the dance form was given its name by Vaishnavites, for whom a favourite story was that of Vishnu disguising himself as Mohini, in order to gull the asuras of their fair share of the amrit churned up from the oceans.

Originally promoted extensively by the local Raja, Swati Tirunal, Mohiniattam, too, gradually degraded to become nautch. However, it underwent the revival, which gave it respectability, with the inspiration and support of the Malayalam poet, Vallathol, who founded the Kerala Kalamandalam in 1930. The first dance teacher at the institution, Kalamandalam Kalyaniamma, did much to resuscitate the ancient style.

The modern Mohiniattam dancer is generally dressed in the unbleached white sari typical of Kerala, with gold jewellery and hair knotted high on the side of the head. She 'sits' with her feet apart and knees bent as she dances, swaying with the grace of a walking elephant, as the classical description says. She dances her love - earthly, but with a divine connotation - for the Lord, Vishnu or in his avatar of Krishna, with slow, graceful, rounded movements that lack the force of Bharata Natyam and the rigidity of Kathak, but are akin to Odissi in their sensuous, flowing dynamics.

The basic format of the traditional Mohiniattam repertoire is similar to that of Bharata Natyam, progressing through Cholkettu, Jathiswaram, Varnam, Padam and Thillana.